48). Yet, there were also long periods of peace, and the stability provided by the empire and its network of roads and communications may have facilitated Christianitys growth. 53 Princ. . How would all of this have influenced Jesus? Greg. Other positive statements on the value of philosophy: Hom. a portrait of jesus' world. There was a noticeable lessening of concern on the part of the members of the dispersed religious group for the destiny and fortunes of the native land and also a relative severing of the traditional ties between religion and the land. Moreover, when you yourself reflect on these matters, consider whether it is necessary rashly to define as a heretic or a churchman the one who thinks in some way, whatever it may be, about these things, or whether it is not dangerous to pronounce about him that he is perverse and is sinning and is self-condemned (cf. Pamphilus: Apology for Origen, with the Letter of Rufinus: On the Falsification of the Books of Origen [trans. E n^N GEbzSA5"Z>C=rJabDaK%LfOLYp#bod?9C7. 1.pref.5 (GK 90, 11.1112.9/Butterworth, 4). The opposition of the Jews to them led to breaches of the peace. 2.9.3 (GK 406, 166.21167.9/Butterworth, 131). storytellers. 3:1011 (= Pamphilus, Apol. Please select which sections you would like to print: Robert O. Anderson Distinguished Service Professor of the Humanities, University of Chicago. Justin Martyr was a key figure during this period who helped reconcile Hellenism with Christian teachings. eccl. For more on this theme, see Scott, D., Recollection and Experience: Plato's Theory of Learning and Its Successors (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The fundamental cause of persecution was the Christians conscientious rejection of the gods whose favour was believed to have brought success to the empire. While many Hellenistic Christians accepted Christ, it was difficult for some to accept the idea of Jesus as intermediary between God and the people. $3012``$@gL ` I Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. He tried to effect a synthesis between scripture and Platonic philosophy. Offers a definition to be defended and addresses objections to the doctrine from theodicy, history, and divine relationality. Pauls success at Ephesus provoked a riot to defend the cult of the goddess Artemis. . 32 For earlier writers, and bibliography, see Luc Brsard, Henri Crouzel, Marcel Borret, Origne. The situation of the early church improved further the following year, when the emperor Constantine, prior to a battle against a rival emperor, experienced a vision of the cross in the heavens with the legend In this sign, conquer. Constantines victory led to his eventual conversion to Christianity. 47 Indeed, for several centuries after Origen's death, there was vigorous debateand open confusionin Christian circles about how to think about the soul's embodiment. The great bishop-theologian Cyprian of Carthage was martyred during the next great wave of persecutions (257259), which were aimed at eradicating the leaders of the church. From Hellenism - the syncretism of Judaism, Greek culture and philosophy, and elements of Egyptian culture we produced Christianity. Jo. (3) Edwards does not appear to provide any texts from which we can positively reconstruct the view of the soul's origin and embodiment that he attributes to Origen. 74 Platonic Opera (ed. 2. 126.1; Rufinus, Anast. Jo. On the opening chapters of Genesis as an allegory of the drama of pre-existent souls and their fall, see Peter W. Martens, Origen's Doctrine of Pre-Existence and the Opening Chapters of Genesis, ZAC 16 (2012) 51649. Abstract. See, for instance, Pamphilus, Apol. But by this point in Greek philosophy, according to Harold W. Attridge of Yale Divinity School, there was a "growing appreciationfor the notion that there may be a single simple divine principle underlying all things." The language and culture of the Hellenistic world was Greek. We have clear evidence in all of that architectural remains Hellenism was having a strong impact even on Galilee during this period. bible history quiz. Salvation History and Religious Competition during the First Millenium AD, in: D. Engels / P. Van Nuffelen (eds. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. 2.6.4); Eph 1:4 (Princ. Yet others insist on the latter interpretation, most notably Simonetti, Manlio, Alcune osservazioni sull interpretazione Origeniana di Genesi 2,7 e 3,21, Aev 36 (1962) 37078Google Scholar; Blosser, Become like the Angels, 17680; Ramelli, Ilaria, Origen, Greek Philosophy, and the Birth of the Trinitarian Meaning of Hypostasis, HTR 105 (2012) 30250CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 1.32 for the pre-existence of Jesus's soul. 1, Divine Impassibility: A Definition and Defense, Martin Hengel, the New Tubingen School, and the Study of Christian Origins, Paul and the Metaphysics of Wisdom: An Exegetical Study of Pauline God-Language, Justin's Life and Logos Christology: Pivotal Lenses for Today, Jesus the Messiah in Messianic Jewish Theology: The Shaping of Messianic Jewish Christology, The Jewish Nature of the Doctrine of the Trinity, A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF JEWISH COMMENTARIES AND PATRISTIC LITERATURE ON THE BOOK OF RUTH, Proto-Trinity: the development of the doctrine of the Trinity in the first and second Christian centuries, The Use of "Hellenistic Judaism" in Pauline Studies, HOW THE PROCESS OF DOCTRINAL STANDARDIZATION DURING THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE RELATES TO CHRISTIAN TRIUMPHALISM, De Lange_Jewish and Christian Messianic Hopes in pre-Islamic Byzantium_TTClark_2007.pdf, Nicholas de Lange, Jewish and Christian Messianic Hopes in Pre-Islamic Byzantium, in Markus Bockmuehl and James Carleton Paget, eds., Redemption and Resistance: The Messianic Hopes of Jews and Christians in Antiquity (London: T&T Clark, 2007), 274284, Wisdom and Word among the Hellenistic Saviors: The Function of Literacy (JSP forthcoming), What Christ Does, God Does: Surveying Recent Scholarship on Christological Monotheism, Irikefe, Odhe - 2013 - THE HUMANITY OF CHRIST IN JOHN 114 IN THE CONTEXT OF THE DIOCESE OF OLEH, ANGLICAN COMMUNION.pdf, CH 6010 Studies in the History of the Early Church Fall 2019, Evaluating Postmissionary Messianic Judaism: Authority, Christology and the Church of God, Prophet Jesus(pbuh): A Prophet, Not a Son of God, THE IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MESSIANIC JEWISH THOUGHT, DER EINFLUSS DES CHRISTENTUMS AUF DIE ENTWICKLUNG DES MESSIANISCH JDISCHEN DENKEN S- THE IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MESSIANIC JEWISH THOUGHT, East Meets West: An Exploration and Analysis of Eastern and Western Traditions, Gregory E. Lamb, "Literary Survey of the Second Temple Period (Including an Introduction to Greco-Roman Literature)", The Trinity A Hebrew concept presented in a Graeco-Roman context, Gnostic Origins and the Apocryphon of John, An Introduction to Presuppositional Apologetics. The content here may be outdated or no longer functioning. Robin Waterfield; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). 1.1.46; Hom. 163) where Origen only mentions two views, traducianism and pre-existence. The history of Hellenistic religions is rarely the history of genuinely new religions. 49(240); Gig. The impact of Christianity following its legitimisation as the official state religion of Rome under Constantine in the 4th century contributed key impacts for the empire and its Hellenistic character. In 64 ce a fire destroyed much of Rome, and . 2; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1901). Upon the Jews' return from exile in Babylon, they endeavored to protect their national identity by following the law closely. 2.178; Ep. There was already in Paul an unmistakably Hellenistic element. Both the inner and outer circles fostered esotericism (secrets to be known only by initiates)the former by its use of native language and its oral recollection of traditions from the homeland; the latter by its use of allegory and other similar methods to radically reinterpret the sacred texts. One of the reasons used to justify this reading is that Origen says several times in Princ. 6.66, and discussion at Chadwick, Origen, Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy, 185; Martens, Origen and Scripture, 11114. Moreover, in many of these passages Origen speaks of a contrast between a discarnate and incarnate existence, and this distinction seems to lose its force if discarnate does not really mean discarnate (e.g., Princ. 1.4); Porphyry (Eusebius, Hist. 14 Cels. (1) Fragment 15 in P. Koetschau's edition of Princ., which speaks of pre-existent rational beings falling (angels, human souls and demons), is not authentic (Origen against Plato, 9091). 2.9.5 (GK 408, 168.12410, 168.28/Butterworth, 133). A common criticism of historic orthodox Christianity is the claim that early Christianity was corrupted by the intellectual forces of 'Hellenism.' (Hellenism, of course, refers to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy and culture, which spread throughout the Mediterranean world after the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC.) 2.18182 (GCS 4, 87.615/Origen: Commentary on the Gospel according to John, Books 110, [trans. 64.72. While this claim might often be true, in the case of pre-existence, Origen was highly conscious of pre-Socratic and Platonic precedents. Origen occasionally used terms like gnosis or gnostikos to describe his opponents (Comm. Hellenism, however, was not merely a favourable soil for the reception and spread of Christianity, but it also exercised a profound influence upon the theological apprehension of it. 5.30 (SC 147, 88.9). Clement of Alexandria, the second known head of the catechetical school at Alexandria, possessed a wide erudition in the main classics and knew the works of Plato and Homer intimately. mine). Hellenization, or Hellenism, refers to the spread of Greek culture that had begun after the conquest of Alexander the Great in the fourth century, B.C.E. Each of these native traditions likewise underwent hellenization (modifications based on Greek cultural ideas), but in a manner frequently different from their diasporic counterparts. These definitions are in keeping with definitions in the wider philosophical literature: for example, Aristotle, De an. 8 Jean Danilou, Gospel Message and Hellenistic Culture (trans. Some of them having to do with issues of ethics and morality. By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. The teachings and way of life that marked an authentic Christianity often stood in a disjunctive relationship with Greco-Roman culture, especially its philosophies. 84 Princ. That impact extends far beyond scripture, and we see during the Hellenistic period Jews adopting literary forms of the Greek tradition, and writing plays, epic poems, lyric poems, all in the Greek language. Cant. This leads to our third observation. hasContentIssue false, Copyright President and Fellows of Harvard College 2015. This essay examines a cultural phenomenon which began in the intertestamentary period and because of its increased impact greatly influenced the New Testament and Early Christian periods- the role of Hellenism in the 2.9.4 (GK 408, 167.2731/Butterworth, 132). of Byzantine Hellenism that takes into account its geographical, linguistic, and cultural origins, as well as its influence on education, literature, art, religion, and society in the Empire, it is possible to gain a fuller, more complete understanding of the way in which it shaped not only the Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). On the uncertainty about the origin of the soul in the Latin middle ages, see Evans, G. R., Philosophy and Theology in the Middle Ages (London: Routledge, 1993) 9295CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the persistence of pre-existence, see Nauta, Lodi, The Preexistence of the Soul in Medieval Thought, RTAM 63 (1996) 93135Google Scholar. Iamblichus, De Anima 26: Another set of Platonists . Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. and And then, subsequent to that, the Roman imperial expansion, which would take that over politically. 166; Cassiodorus, De Anima 7; Gregory the Great, Ep. ; Translated Texts for Historians 51; Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009) 2:28384 (Georgius Monachus, Chronicon [ed. 14.1617; 15.3436; Hom. As a historical process Hellenization was influential on post-exilic Judaism and early Christianity. The nature of God was another tricky bridge between two schools of thought for Hellenistic Christianity to overcome. let him be anathema (ACO 4.1, 242.3237transl. 171172) as, it appears, does Rufinus (Princ. Beginning in February 303, under the co-emperors Diocletian and Galerius the church faced the worst of all persecutions. It's Me, Margaret.". ETHIOPIAN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY, MISSIOLOGICAL IMPLICATION OF PAULS APOLOGETICS METHODOLOGY IN ACTS 17:22-34 TO THE 21ST CENTURY MISSIONARY AMONG THE BURA PEOPLE OF HAWUL LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BORNO STATE, NIGERIA, The One God and the Lord Jesus Christ: An Exegetical Examination of the High Christology Found in Paul, Mark, and John, The Early Christian Appropriation of Pagan Piety. 5 See Harnack's distinction between Jewish and Hellenistic views of pre-existence and Origen's illustration of the latter variety (History of Dogma, 1:31831). While majorities of both Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (84%) and Republicans and Republican leaners (61%) say religion should be kept separate from . To learn more, view ourPrivacy Policy. SV&>zi{in^KFrtM1UkY r5vec1n>(Ex)&-V"h 0R%0H why did christianity succeed? In the diasporic centres, as is generally characteristic of immigrant groups, there were two circles. All forms of paganismthe Oriental mystery (salvational) religions of Isis, Attis, Adonis, and Mithra as well as the traditional Greco-Roman polytheisms and the cult of the emperorwere regarded as the worship of evil spirits. web site copyright 1995-2014 Io. The study of Hellenistic religions is a study of the dynamics of religious persistence and change in this vast and culturally varied area. 3:1011 (= Pamphilus, Apol. Instead, they possessed pre-determined rational natures, some lost, incapable of receiving salvation, and others saved, incapable of being lost. 5.29, with commentary by Martens, Peter W., On the Confusion of Tongues and Origen's Allegory of the Dispersion of Nations, SPhilo 24 (2011) 10727Google Scholar. The search for the historical Jesus has resulted in the view that Jesus never was, nor claimed to be, any more than a mere man. Approved thesis at Harding School of Theology on divine impassibility. ; History of Theology; Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1996] 1:170). 5.62 for Origen's open acknowledgment that he read philosophical texts. 163, 165) where Origen appears to exclude the possibility of being labeled a heretic for one's view on the origin of the soul, since the church's rule has not handed down a pronouncement on the matter:But there are also certain other dogmas that are not included in the apostolic traditions. Ronald E. Heine; FC 80; Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1989] 14344). { _ &g&>|{K]T 7)Z*"7pScB`UK A Thus, the Christians could very well be unpopular, and they often were. 2.1; 2.3 (736a316); 2.4.25 (738b). Traditionally, "Hellenistic Judaism" was a designation for Judaism in the Greek-speaking world, including those Jews who spoke Greek and adopted (to some extent) a Greek way of life. ; 3rd German edition; London: Williams and Norgate, 1897) esp. Gen. 1.13; Comm. Theosis, vol. They wished only to reject all polytheistic myth and cult and all metaphysical and ethical doctrines irreconcilable with Christian belief (e.g., Stoic materialism and Platonic doctrines of the transmigration of souls and the eternity of the world). Much of this activity would have centered in Alexandria, the capital of Egypt, but there was similar activity going on in Palestine, and some of these literary products that survive in some cases only in fragments, were probably written in Palestine, by Jews who were adopting these Hellenistic literary modes. Lev. `-Sr*Oz[%,qniD94iS=1MI}Oc&`c$1"N%! Thus, while not formally included in the acts of the council, the bishops certainly had Justinian's letter and these anathemas fresh in mind when they formally condemned Origen at the council. Paris: tudes augustiniennes, 1985)Google Scholar. 54 Princ. 3.21; C. Jul. 20 See Comm. 2; Cels. Reflecting this position, Tertullian once asked, What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? Despite this hostility, many Christians recognized the value of ancient letters. For Origen, a just and good God would not assign blame to a soul that had not committed sin itself. 5.8), but he also used these terms to describe Christians he deemed orthodox (Comm. That seems to me a confusion. 72 Edwards, Origen against Plato, 410, 15961. John Austin Baker; 3 vols. 163): the church's rule is silent about the issue of the origin of the soul. ; Bibliothque de lcole des hautes tudes, sciences religieuses 37, 43, 44; Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1928) 3:1056. We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. *zYH!Q]{M{XX In particular, Martyr used the Greek concept of internal and external thought to illustrate Jesus Christ's relationship with God, and thus Christ's messiah status. For the first time, Rome was conscious that Christians were distinct from Jews. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. 1.pref.2 (GK 84, 8.1927/Origen: On First Principles [trans. de Boor; 2 vols. 1.7.4 (see also Princ. 41 Harnack, History of Dogma, 1:9. Thomas P. Scheck; FC 120; Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2010] 11011).Pamphilus also makes Origen's view his own (Apol. discussion. A Definition of the Title Son of God in the Synoptic Gospels, Why Should an Atheist Have Faith [And This] In Jesus-Christ, NEW TESTAMENT CHRISTOLOGY: A CRITIQUE OF BOUSSETS INFLUENCE, THE RECEPTION OF JOHANNINE LOGOS: AN APPROPRIATION OF JAUSS-GADAMER HERMENEUTICS OF RECEPTION THEORY. 1.6.23 (also see 1.8.1). In each case the material was reinterpreted both in light of common Hellenistic ideals and in accord with the special traditions and needs of the diasporic community. For pre-existence in other Jewish texts from this same era, see Bostock, The Sources, 260361; Givens, When Souls Had Wings, 4651. in GCS 2, 436. eccl. See also Dial. Byers, Sarah C., Perception, Sensibility, and Moral Motivation in Augustine: A Stoic-Platonic Synthesis (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 1516; Cels. ; A History of Early Christian Doctrine Before the Council of Nicaea; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1972) 2:415. Philo was an example of the intense Hellenization of Judaism. The emperor Decius (reigned 249251) issued an edict requiring all citizens to offer sacrifice to the emperor and to obtain from commissioners a certificate witnessing to the act. and those who have thought or continue to think things resembling the aforementioned heretics . 33 All three passages are cited at Princ. Richard Price; 2 vols. 2.9.2 (GK 404, 166.610/Butterworth, 13031). Commentaire sur le Cantique des Cantiques, SC 375 (Paris: Cerf, 1991) 4089, n. 1. This essay obviously does not allow for a fully developed comparison of Origen's teaching on the soul's embodiment with the panoply of views on pre-existence that were in circulation in antiquity. Gen. 1 (=Eusebius, Marc. It was visible in several other cities around Galilee. The clearest discussion of human reason and free will is at Princ. ad Greg. Omissions? More than a half-century later, the movie adaptation, due April 28, is putting that . Some of them having to do with fundamental philosophical issues such as the nature of reality and the nature of God. 2.18182; 20.182; Dial. 1.6.2 (GK 220, 81.1112/Butterworth, 154). Each of these native religions also had diasporic centres that exhibited marked change during the Hellenistic period. 2.8.1/GK 380, 152.20). Christianity was influenced by the historical contexts in which it developed Beginnings of Christianity Christianity developed in Judea in the mid-first century CE, based first on the teachings of Jesus and later on the writings and missionary work of Paul of Tarsus. This led to a change from concern for a religion of national prosperity to one for individual salvation, from focus on a particular ethnic group to concern for every human. We have some ideas in common with them, he plainly announces (Cels. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. In 64 ce a fire destroyed much of Rome, and, in order to escape blame, the emperor Nero killed a vast multitude of Christians as scapegoats. Extending from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Indus River, from the forests of Germany and the steppes of Russia to the Sahara Desert and the Indian Ocean, it took in an area of some 1.5 million square miles (3.9 million square kilometres; most of Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, Africa, Persia, and the borderlands of India) and had a total population of more than 54 million. Hellenism refers to the spread of Greek culture through the Mediterranean region after the fourth century B.C. } Matt. That's certainly an example of the way in which Greek literary forms and Greek language impacted Jewish civilization and literary traditions. Ti. For a good rehearsal of Origen's expertise in philosophy, see Dorival, Gilles, L'apport d'Origne pour la connaissance de la philosophie grecque, in Origeniana Quinta (ed. 50 Princ. h Today the consensus is that this did not occur. Bacchylides raises the problem why rationalist culture in its first Hellenic embodiment met with an arrest. Note that this lower soul, should it be derived according to traducianist principles, exists alongside a higher soul that emerges according to the theory of pre-existence. . 15.35; Comm. Many of these certificates have survived. The attitude of the earliest Christians toward paganism and the imperial government was complicated by their close association with Greco-Roman literary and artistic culture: it was difficult to attack the former without seeming to criticize the latter. Consider for instanceand I mean this as an examplewhether one should be considered a heretic who investigates the question of the human soul, since concerning it the Church's rule has handed down neither that it is derived from the propagation of the seed, nor that it is more honorable and more ancient than the structure of bodies. Jo. Jewish culture and civilization during the Hellenistic period was in intense dialogue with Hellenistic culture and civilization, beginning with the translation of Hebrew scriptures into Greek, a translation which survives and which we know as the Septuagint. Glen Bowersock, Peter Brown and Oleg Grabar; Cambridge, Mass. The Most Risky Job Ever. Reporting on ISIS in Afghanistan. from Mount Holyoke College. 31 Comm. ISIS is in Afghanistan, But Who Are They Really? Updates? 1:4); John 9:2 (Hom. 38 Crouzel, Henri, Origne (Paris: Lethielleux, 1985) 21623Google Scholar. 39.5; Comm. How Hellenized was the Jewish religious culture of the time? . Render date: 2023-05-01T03:55:48.679Z 1.3233; 5.2933). So too Bostock: It must be recognized however that the Platonic or Pythagorean doctrine of pre-existence was not antagonistic to Jewish belief and that the difference between them was one of emphasis and viewpoint rather than of fundamental philosophy (The Sources, 260). Here I look at the way that Paul confronts, adapts, and "Christianizes" Greco-Roman theo-philosophical God-language in order to better communicate the unique reality of the gospel and the Christian God in his theologizing and evangelism into the Hellenistic world. Christianity and Hellenistic philosophies experienced complex interactions during the first to the fourth centuries. 3.9 (432a) and Philo, Leg. 16 See Eusebius, Hist. The first version of this essay was delivered during the Logos Conference (University of Notre Dame, 2012) at the invitation of Michael Rea. For other places where Origen describes or defines souls, see esp. eccl. From this basis I trace the development of Christology to the end of the second century, demonstrating how Christian thought moved from its primitive understanding of Jesus to the foundations of the doctrine of the Trinity. Early Christianity engaged Hellenistic culture generally, and more specifically Greek philosophy, from the end of the first century on. Herwig Grgemanns and Heinrich Karpp; Texte zur Forschung 24; 3rd ed. Just as we see in major Jewish communities in Egypt at this same time as well, and had been there for two hundred years before. 1.3.1; Ep. 66 Princ. In this study I review the early Christian texts, their content and background, to ascertain the earliest forms of Christological thought. 2.7(23). 13 Origen was as aware as Justinian (or Harnack) of the potential danger of philosophy to corrode the church's central convictions. Some of the main themes that Jesus taught, which Christians later embraced, include: Love God. 36, no. 126 0 obj <> endobj Educated Christians shared this literary tradition with educated pagans. The first German . In Fight Against ISIS, a Lose-Lose Scenario Poses Challenge for West. In his De Anima 7, Cassiodorus endorses the creationist view but acknowledges that it is a difficult mystery how God can create souls and assign to them Adam's guilt when they have done no prior wrong. ; Stuttgart: Teubner, 1904] 2:63033]). See as well his comment about transmigration as derived from their [i.e., Jews] fathers and that this is not alien to their secret teaching (Comm. II.147.13 (IX.147). For instance, in saying that the word of God that we encounter in scripture is the logos or the divine reason, by which he meant a combination of the ideas, Plato's ideas, which by that time were conceived by philosophers as being in the mind of God. Hellenistic religion was based on a polytheistic tradition of hundreds of Greek gods, conflicting with Christianity's adherence to belief in one God. To accomplish this, the Apologists adopted the philosophical and literary vocabulary of the broader culture to develop a more refined expression of the faith that could appeal to the sophisticated sensibilities of their pagan contemporaries. Rather it is best understood as the study of archaic Mediterranean religions in their Hellenistic phase within both their native and diasporic settings. The historical Hellenistic Age is defined as the period from the death of the Greco-Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great (323 bc) to the conquest of Egypt by Rome (30 bc), but the influence of the Hellenistic religions extended to the time of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor (d. ad 337); these religions are confined to those that were active within the Mediterranean world. On this series of fifteen anathemas, and their relationship to the council, see Price, Acts of Constantinople, 2:270286.
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