Hum. The first of these large collaborative efforts is finally starting: the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study.60 This ground-breaking work will collect brain scans and a rich set of neuropsychological and behavioral data on a cohort of approximately 10,000 children aged 910 from the general population, and track their scans and development over time. Some of the main questions currently included in the neuroscientific study of poverty focus on a number of topics already addressed by the fields of developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and health sciences, especially those regarding the effects and mechanisms of mediation at the behavioral level of analysis (Bradley and Corwyn, 2002; Hackman and Farah, 2009; Moffitt et al., 2011; Evans et al., 2013). This is a well-known problem in the neurolaw literature: the group-to-individual (G2i) inference problem.28 Studies that identify associations of brain defects with impairments typically do so by comparing a group of subjects with a localized defect to a group of subjects without the defect (healthy controls). Copyright 2023 by The American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. Psychol. Hum. According to the American Psychoanalytic Association (APA . However, that theory has not yet been proved by brain research. (2010) have suggested that properties (i.e., magnitude, duration and chronicity), and types (e.g., social exclusion vs. physical threat) of stressors in early adverse developmental contexts modulate the impact on neural networks involved in acute and chronic responses to stress. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01147.x, Raizada, R. D. S., and Kishiyama, M. M. (2010). For example, Ganzel et al. Rev. Brain activity is presumably the source of all these things, but how, exactly? Of course, these are not the only barriers to CT; rather, they are five that may have the most impact on how one applies CT. 1. 13, 6573. One of the areas in which these advancements have been verified is the study of stress regulation in early adverse developmental contexts. Front. 27, p 26N). Sci. Early neuroscientific studies in experimental animals analyzed how exposure to complex, standard or deprived environments can modify the brain. Psychopathol. Acad. This is not a treatise about theories of knowledge and causation or of neuroscience's challenge to the nature of free will, which have been covered elsewhere.7 Although such philosophical discussions can be fascinating, as noted by others,8 ultimately they distract us from the practical problems that plague neuroscience-based legal claims today. Cumulative risk and child development. However, it is a dry kind of evidence, abstract and statistical, limiting its persuasive impact. Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. 2d 715 (N.Y. Crim. 46, 156162. 15:843. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1849, Zhu, X., Wang, F., Hu, H., Sun, X., Kilgard, M. P., Merzenich, M. M., et al. 7, 6773. Psychoanalysis refers to both a theory and a type of therapy based on the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. 4:3. doi: 10.3389/neuro.09.003.2010, Rao, H., Betancourt, L., Giannetta, J. M., Brodsky, N. L., Korczykowski, M., Avants, B. Transformation of cortical and hippocampal neural circuit by environmental enrichment. Sci. How can neuroscience as a field move beyond describing groups to making accurate individual predictions? Perspect. Enhanced efficiency of the executive attention network after training in preschool children: immediate changes and effects after two months. Not only do researchers fail to detect real effects, but of more concern, they may also falsely determine null effects to be real. However, the most pernicious error here, one that is not easy to spot, is the claim that because the amygdala is the fear center, activity there indicates that the defendant was experiencing high levels of fear. Researchers believe that with MPI, resolutions can be boosted to the theoretical equivalent of a 30 T MRI scanner.59. Natl. 16, 665675. The reverse-inference error is especially prevalent in the interpretation of brain activity in functional neuroimaging studies. Understanding Conciousness:Doctors may use this to their advantage as they can empty beds and in Wales there is the opt out system so if a doctor needs a donor they could use this to turn off a life support machine. In addition, a recent topic of interest in neuroscience addresses mechanisms of mediation of childhood poverty on cognitive development (Hackman et al., 2010; Noble et al., 2012; Lipina et al., 2013; Neville et al., 2013a), which allows the identification of potential targets for the design of interventions. It is of increasing interest in the courtroom as well, and each year the number of cases using neuroscience-based evidence rises.2 The reasons for this are clear enough. there is an almost literally infinite number of possible interactions between these variables For confirmation, we must look to other kinds of evidence. Genetic differences between individuals can result in widely divergent recruitment of brain areas for similar tasks. (2014). Child Dev. Neurosci. In addition, current neuroscientific research in the area of early adverse experience on brain development has begun to incorporate concepts and methodologies derived from advances in epigenetics and the analysis of neural activation in animal and human models. Neuroevidence may effectively generate hypotheses, but generally cannot answer them. However, behavioral associations with genotypes in humans should be interpreted with caution because similar experiences may produce different outcomes in different people. To find behavioral evidence that could corroborate or disconfirm the presence of cognitive impairment, the expert examined personal writings, journals, datebooks, calendars, checkbook records, and financial records for a three year period surrounding the time of the offense and concluded this analysis showed no evidence of impairment or change in his management of his everyday affairs (Ref. What are the links between maternal social status, hippocampal function and HPA axis function in children? The bottom line: forensic psychiatrists must be very wary of assertions in which the presence or absence of activation of a given brain area (e.g., amygdala and frontal lobes) is interpreted to mean that the person experienced a specific mental state. doi: 10.1111/desc.12080, Lipina, S. J., Simonds, J., and Segretin, M. S. (2011). . Nat. Prog. When positive psychologists advocate a strengths-based approach, I hear it as an important . His lawyer suggested that the prosecutor would never have agreed to a plea if the judge had excluded the PET evidence (Ref. As a generally noninvasive subset of neuroscience methods, psychophysiological methods are used across a variety of disciplines in order to answer diverse questions about psychology, both mental events and behavior. These studies provide behavioral information about how experience-expectant processes can be manipulated to occur earlier than expected in a normal developmental trajectory. The impact of poverty on the development of brain networks. Effects of socioeconomic status on brain development and how cognitive neuroscience may contribute to leveling the playing field. Rev. Neuroimage 49, 11441150. (2014). We will also finally get a good sense of the range of what brains in the general population look like and how they change over time. Linking childhood poverty and cognition: environmental mediators of non-verbal executive control in an Argentine sample. Critical period: a history of the transition from questions of when, to what, to how. Educational Researcher, November 1989, 18 . 1, 101109. (2013). Some of the strengths of this theory include the focus on both the positive nature of humankind and the free will associated with change. Development as a dynamic system. Differential susceptibility to the environment: toward an understanding of sensitivity to developmental experiences and context. Pubmed Abstract | Pubmed Full Text | Google Scholar, Gianaros, P. J., and Hackman, D. (2013). Overall the strengths and the weakness of the research methods adopted by cognitive neuroscientists discussed in my essay (TMS, CAT, PET and FMRI) had a variety of strengths and weaknesses. The cognitive approach is highly influential in all areas of psychology (e.g., biological, social, neuroscience, developmental, etc.). Third, we also propose to expand the theoretical integration across all developmental and cognitive psychology, and to plan experiments applying neuroimaging techniques to promote and generate innovative hypotheses and research programs (Crone and Ridderinkhof, 2011; Gianaros and Hackman, 2013). The much that is known about human ways of thinking and behaviors can be attributed to psychological theories. Neurosci. I describe how ignorance of these problems leads to reasoning errors and brain overclaim syndrome. To this respect, some of the main contributions include the diversity of molecular mechanisms in different brain areas, epigenetic interactions, the role of structural consolidation, inhibitory and excitatory balance, functional competition between inputs, regulation by experience and age, influence of motivation and cognitive control, and potential for reactivation of organizational processes in adulthood (Hensch, 2004; Holtmaat and Svoboda, 2009; Bavelier et al., 2010). Most modern scanners have three Tesla (T) magnets that can resolve brain tissue down to 1 mm (a 1-mm3 block of brain contains approximately 20,000 neurons),57 but the most powerful MRI machine under construction will surpass them all at 11.75 T, which is expected to be able to resolve brain tissue down to 0.1 mm.58 Furthermore, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) promises to increase significantly the resolution of functional MRI by injecting magnetic nanoparticles that act as contrast agents. The neuroscientific study of child poverty is a topic that has only recently emerged. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-1006.2005.00024.x, Johnson, M. H. (2005). 75, 610615. Sci. Therefore, measurement of neural activity that occurs before the attainment of a certain skill could allow for a better understanding of the development of the mechanisms responsible for these behaviors (e.g., Rao et al., 2010). In the case of the neural circuits involved in complex behaviors, the closure of sensitive periods seems to depend on whether they are associated with circuits performing computations at either basic or complex levels, such as feature representation, categorization function, top-down interactions, and cross-modal reorganization (Kral, 2013). It is worth mentioning, however, that effective countermeasures for functional neuroimaging-based tests such as EEG48- and fMRI49-based lie detection are known to exist. Presciently, in 2006 Morse identified signs of a cognitive pathology he labeled brain overclaim syndrome (BOS). Strength-based assessment can enhance clinical clarity, improve the range of information, and provide a more complete picture of clients and their circumstances. doi: 10.1080/17450128.2010.521598, Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., and Heim, C. (2009). Ct. 1992), Medical-legal inferences from functional neuroimaging evidence, Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. Child Dev. (2005). (2011). Training, maturation and genetic influences on the development of executive attention. TMS is a stimulation method that is non-invasive technique. Cogn. 10, 434445. The CASP offers corrections to McGill and Busse's three critiques and clarifies the Association position that the assessment of students suspected of having a Specific Learning Disability involves a comprehensive evaluation that provides information regarding both environmental factors that include data on instruction and interventions as . Perhaps this is inevitable, considering the vast complexity of our brains in comparison to the miniscule amount that we know. 117, 134174. Med. Dev. Some of the widely accepted psychological theories are the behavioral theories, the cognitive theories, humanist theories, biological theories, psychodynamic and the social psychology theories. For instance, Brito and Noble (2014) have proposed early linguistic environment and stress as the candidate mechanisms through which poverty influences structural (i.e., language hemisphere, hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex) and functional (i.e., language, memory, social-emotional processing, cognitive control, self-regulation) brain development, based on recent findings considering different systems and levels of organization. The presence of brain defects can certainly raise plausible questions of mental impairment, but can only rarely answer them. In addition, they could coincide with the attainment of functional specialization in a given domain (Johnson, 2005). In a recent meta-review, Szucs and Ioannidis39 estimated that more than 50 percent of published research findings in psychology and cognitive neuroscience studies are likely to be false. (2012). Search. Biological psychology has been dated to Avicenna (980-1037 C.E. (2010). 9:53. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00053. Understanding Conciousness: Not definitive proof claustrum is seat of conciousness. Knowing how things typically work can help shed light on what may happen when there are problems. Proc. Front. Child Dev. Based on its location and size, it is plausible that Mr. Weinstein's cyst contributed to behavioral impairments and thus potentially is relevant to finders of fact, but because of biovariability, the neuroimages alone cannot establish whether he was impaired, nor can it establish, if impaired, to what extent the brain defect was a contributing cause. Also, recent behavioral studies have shown that sensitive periods are not necessarily fixed in terms of timing, and suggest that closure of these periods is likely to result from the natural consequence of a given learning process (Michel and Tayler, 2005). The idea that humans conduct mental processes on incoming information - i.e. Trust your gut is a piece of advice often thrown . doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5310-13.2014, Keywords: childhood poverty, social inequality, brain plasticity, interventions, policy making, Citation: Lipina SJ and Segretin MS (2015) Strengths and weakness of neuroscientific investigations of childhood poverty: future directions. Am. Thus, integration of the different forms of plasticity should be the focus for neuroscience research in the field of poverty and brain development aimed at establishing windows for intervention opportunities. For instance, Bakermans-Kranenburg and van Ijzendoorn (2011) found that children with secure attachment representations donated more money to a charity (e.g., UNICEF) in the context of an attachment story completion task, only if they had the DRD4 7-repeat allele; and that children with less efficient dopamine-related genes (D2, DRD4, DAT1) had more adaptive difficulties in negative rearing environments. 6:254. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00254, Ellis, B. J., and Boyce, W. T. (2011). The purpose of this editorial is to restore a clear-eyed view that balances both the incredible potential and current limitations of the use of neuroscience in the courtroom. 6:277. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00277, Hackman, D. A., and Farah, M. J. Strengths of Humanistic Theory. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, Neuroscience and behavioral genetics in US criminal law: an empirical analysis, Brain overclaim syndrome and criminal responsibility: a diagnostic note, Seeing is believing: the effect of brain images on judgments of scientific reasoning, The seductive allure of neuroscience explanations, The seductive allure of seductive allure, Forensic psychiatry, neuroscience, and the law, The non-problem of free will in forensic psychiatry and psychology, The value of quantitative electroencephalography in clinical psychiatry: a report by the Committee on Research of the American Neuropsychiatric Association, Assessment of digital EEG, quantitative EEG, and EEG brain mapping: report of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society, Quantitative EEG and the Frye and Daubert standards of admissibility, Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression, The spatial attention network interacts with limbic and monoaminergic systems to modulate motivation-induced attention shifts, Ecstasy and agony: activation of the human amygdala in positive and negative emotion, Motivational salience: amygdala tuning from traits, needs, values, and goals, Inferring mental states from neuroimaging data: from reverse inference to large-scale decoding, A direct demonstration of functional specialization in human visual cortex, Large-scale neurocognitive networks and distributed processing for attention, language, and memory, Lesion mapping of cognitive control and value-based decision making in the prefrontal cortex, Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex, People v. Weinstein, 591 N.Y.S. In closing, I emphasize that although neuroscience can inform, it will never be able to answer ultimate legal questions of culpability and desert. Findings of brain defects in individuals may raise valid and plausible claims of impairment. In this context, it is necessary to take into consideration the structural, electrophysiological, and molecular changes in brain plasticity in terms of (a) how neural operations change after adverse experience; (b) the physiological and biochemical involvement of components related to connectivity between different neural networks; (c) how experience and neuropil transformations contribute to brain functional specialization; and (d) the role of epigenetics, sensitive periods and differential susceptibility in shaping neural networks (Hackman et al., 2010; DAngiulli et al., 2012; Hirase and Shinohara, 2014). Before addressing the reverse-inference error here, it is worth quickly mentioning other problems with this reasoning. Nutr. Sensitivity and specificity can be estimated with small studies, but ascertaining predictive values requires knowledge of prevalence rates of the defect and impairment in the relevant population.41 For the nonspecialist, the basic concept to grasp is that without large surveys of brain structure and function in the general population, we cannot know how many people are walking around with brain imaging anomalies but are functioning normally, because such individuals rarely come to the attention of research studies. 6:238. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00238, Lipina, S., Segretin, S., Hermida, J., Prats, L., Fracchia, C., Camelo, J. L., et al. To do this, we should understand what kinds of questions neuroscience currently can and cannot answer. Nat. Proc. Beautiful, high-resolution images are impressive, but for legal applications, what neuroscience needs is more data, particularly in the form of large, normative survey studies, as mentioned earlier. Moreover, the consideration of sensitive periods for many processes susceptible to different socioeconomic conditions and timing of intervention requires a revision of the agendas in other disciplines addressing childhood poverty (e.g., many disciplines currently contend that the impacts of economic and social deprivation are permanent and irreversible) (DAngiulli et al., 2012). doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233, Brito, N. H., and Noble, K. (2014). If ADHD is seen as a problem of inhibition, planning and control, then it is logical that tests of general intelligence, which were not designed to measure these cognitive processes (Wasserman . In order to understand something it is important to know the history and have a definition. In the basic sciences, optogenetics,53 a technology invented by psychiatrist Karl Deisseroth in 2005,54 continues to reap rich rewards. Unlike behaviors, certain kinds of neuroimaging, such as structural MRIs, are not possible to fake, aside from deceptions like switching the films, and can thus allay malingering concerns. (2013). Not everyone who wears black has been to a funeral. 16, 708712. 1923), PET scans advance as tool in insanity defense, Group to individual (G2i) inference in scientific expert testimony, Dynamic neuroplasticity after human prefrontal cortex damage, On the other hand: including left-handers in cognitive neuroscience and neurogenetics, What is cognitive reserve? Contribution of neuroscience to the study of socioeconomic health disparities. Socioeconomic status and child development. Annu. For such a purpose, it is necessary to encourage the design of interventions and the measurement of outcomes driven by theoretical models to include the consideration of underlying mechanisms at different levels of analysis. Psychosom. 72, 450461. doi: 10.1038/nrn2897, Hensch, T. K. (2004). On the other hand, what should we do if the neuroevidence conflicts with behavioral evidence? The five major perspectives in psychology are biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic. It does not allow for direct observation. (2010). Sci. 6:76. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00076, Kral, A. Things such as emotions, social pressures, environmental factors, childhood experiences, and cultural variables can also play a role in the formation of psychological problems. Consider a clinical example: a patient walks into your office complaining of back pain and asks for opiates. Auditory critical periods: a review from systems perspective. In addition, based on overactivity and the amygdala's known role as the brain's fear center, the defendant likely had overwhelming levels of fear at the time of an alleged offense, thus arguing for diminished culpability. Dev. In a practical context, the BrainMind Audit Profile (that contains 9 metrics) provides information on the strengths and weaknesses of an individual's brain-and-mind functioning, and by doing . They found that maternal stress in infancy predicted higher methylation levels in both girls and boys, but paternal stressors in preschool predicted differences in methylation at adolescence specifically in girls. Theory and research application of the reserve concept, Systems neuroplasticity in the aging brain: recruiting additional neural resources for successful motor performance in elderly persons, Contrasting acute and slow-growing lesions: a new door to brain plasticity, Prevalence and natural history of arachnoid cysts in adults: Clinical article, Miller v. Alabama, 132 S. 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Psychol. I remain hopeful, as does Bruer, that the indirect evidence from neuroimaging and other neuroscience research has the potential to suggest teaching strategies and environmental stimuli that are valuable for learning. Strengths and weaknesses of biopsychology research. Family-based training program improves brain function, cognition and behavior in lower socioeconomic status preschoolers. 48, 932938. At first glance, this assertion seems reasonable. You may wonder why there are so many different psychological approaches and whether one approach is correct and another wrong. For a hypothetical example, a group of 10 patients with strokes in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is compared with 10 healthy subjects on a test of impulse control and are found to differ on this measure. Cogn. Dev. Am. Psychol. Received: 27 December 2013; Accepted: 19 January 2015; Published online: 11 February 2015. For example, I have found that neuroimaging findings can be useful in directing relevant follow-up neuropsychological testing and bringing attention to important behavioral details that might otherwise have been missed. Front. Nat. Inevitably, however, the curves overlap; some stroke patients will have better impulse control than some healthy controls, and some healthy subjects will have worse impulse control than some stroke patients. Let's start by highlighting that our brains have limited capacity to process information and the world provides way more than our brains can handle, which is why we need mental short cuts/habits to function. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.004, Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccamanno, L., and Posner, M. I. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.003, Rueda, M. R., Checa, P., and Cmbita, L. M. (2012). 53, 371399. Although neuroscience's proper role in the courts is limited by the problems mentioned above, I also believe that neuroscience evidence can be very useful. doi: 10.1037/a0024657, Crone, E. A., and Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2011). 15, S192S204. The case of Phineas Gage has been of huge interest in the field of psychology and is a largely speculated phenomena. The problem of overlapping curves is the reason so few neuroimaging-based tests are used in psychiatric diagnosis. 33, 1722117231. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behavior and cognition. Dev. This also implies: (a) the support of methodological innovations in the analysis of neural connectivity for studies that compare different intervention contexts (e.g., home, school, community), its mediators, and the potential requirements for the intervention designs (e.g, Jolles and Crone, 2012; Lipina and Posner, 2012); and (b) the generation of alternative methodologies aimed at overcoming limits in sample size, timing of longitudinal designs, and levels of analysis (Gianaros and Hackman, 2013). doi: 10.1037/a0026313, Blair, C., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., Kivlighan, K. T., Fortunato, C. K., Granger, D. A., et al. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2012.11.009, Essex, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Hertzman, C., Lam, L. L., Armstrong, J. M., Neumann, S. M., et al. Hum. Neural correlates of socioeconomic status in the developing human brain. 10, 647658. Evidence of the modulation of epigenetic mechanisms during early development in individuals growing under different rearing conditions (e.g., deprived SES, stress exposure) has recently been incorporated into this line of research. I discuss two fundamental problems that limit the evidentiary utility of neuroscience-based claims: the problems of reverse inference and group-to-individual inference. How is it possible that a person can have a brain defect yet not have symptoms? Despite the effort it takes and the fraught nature of decision-making in which freedom, life, and treasure hang in the balance, that is the way it should be. Fourth, we suggest the development of innovative studies directed at analyzing plasticity of complex cognitive and emotional processes, and their respective windows of opportunities for intervention (Lipina and Colombo, 2009; DAngiulli et al., 2012; Lipina and Posner, 2012). After all, it is generally accepted, based on a vast amount of clinical evidence and basic research, that the frontal lobes play an important role in cognitive control and decision-making,20 and that individuals with defects in frontal lobe areas such as orbitofrontal cortex, the area of frontal cortex adjacent to the orbits, exhibit impaired impulse control and impaired decision-making, among other findings.21, However, let us consider a famous example from the neurolaw literature: the case of Herbert Weinstein.22 This case is considered a landmark criminal proceeding in neurolaw, as it is the first known attempt in New York to use neuroimaging to argue for insanity.23 Mr. Weinstein, an advertising executive in his mid-60s with no prior psychiatric or criminal history at the time of the incident, was accused of, and later confessed to, killing his wife by throwing her out the window of their 12th-story apartment after a heated argument.24 A structural MRI was obtained after the act, which revealed a large, left-side arachnoid cyst. ), a physician who recognized physiological psychology in the treatment of illnesses and linked the physical and psychological together. Proc. 23, 3952. A bar chart can be generated by a grade schooler on her smartphone, but a functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI), for example, carries with it the imprimatur of big science, as it requires expensive machines and legions of geeks to generate.
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